Radionuclide Production and Generators
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Solve questions (25) →Contents
- 11.1 Reactor Production (Fission, Neutron Activation)
- 11.1.1 Nuclear Fission
- 11.1.2 Neutron Activation
- 11.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Reactor Production
- 11.2 Cyclotron Production
- 11.2.1 Cyclotron Physics and Principle of Operation
- 11.2.2 Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides
- 11.2.3 F-18 Production (Detailed)
- 11.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyclotron Production
- 11.2.5 Reactor vs Cyclotron
- 11.3 Generator Systems
- 11.3.1 Generator Principle
- 11.3.2 The Mo-99/Tc-99m Generator
- 11.3.3 Quality Control of the Mo-99/Tc-99m Generator
- 11.3.4 The Ge-68/Ga-68 Generator
- 11.3.5 The Sr-82/Rb-82 Generator
- 11.3.6 Other Generator Systems
- 11.3.7 Comparison Table of Generator Systems
- 11.4 Physical Properties of Radionuclides (Table)
- 11.4.1 SPECT Radionuclides
- 11.4.2 PET Radionuclides
- 11.4.3 Therapeutic Radionuclides
- 11.5 Target Preparation and Processing
- 11.5.1 Target Design
- 11.5.2 Post-Irradiation Processing
- 11.5.3 The Concept of Specific Activity
- 11.5.4 Radionuclidic Purity and Contaminants
- 11.6 Radionuclide Selection and Principles of Radiochemistry
- 11.6.1 Terminology and Notation
- 11.6.2 Criteria for Radionuclide Selection
- 11.6.3 Radiolabelling Chemistry
- Key Points for the Board
- Current guidelines on this chapter's topics
Learning objectives and modules3 modules · about 2 h 20 min
Learning objectives
After this chapter you will be able to:
- Compare reactor production (fission, neutron activation) and cyclotron production in terms of product properties and specific activity.
- Explain the operating principle of the cyclotron and the production reaction of F-18.
- Explain the principle, elution timing and quality criteria of the Mo-99/Tc-99m, Ge-68/Ga-68 and Sr-82/Rb-82 generators.
- Match the half-life, decay mode and energies of commonly used radionuclides with their production routes.
- Discuss the role of half-life, emission type and chemical properties in selecting a radionuclide for diagnosis and therapy.
Modules
The chapter is divided into study modules without changing the order of the text: read, watch the animations, then answer the questions linked to those headings.
- Module 111.1–11.2 Reactor Production (Fission, Neutron Activation) · Cyclotron Production40 min · 1 animation · 16 questionsAnswer the questions →
- Module 211.3–11.4 Generator Systems · Physical Properties of Radionuclides (Table)1 h · 2 animations · 24 questionsAnswer the questions →
- Module 311.5–11.6 Target Preparation and Processing · Radionuclide Selection and Principles of Radiochemistry · Key Points for the Board40 min · 14 questionsAnswer the questions →
Times are estimates: 130 words per minute, 3 min per animation, 1.5 min per question.
MOST FREQUENTLY ASKED IN THIS CHAPTER
11.1 Reactor Production (Fission, Neutron Activation)
Nuclear reactors are one of the most important sources of radionuclides. Two basic production methods are used in reactors: nuclear fission and neutron activation.
11.1.1 Nuclear Fission4 questions
Definition: The process in which a heavy nucleus (usually U-235 or Pu-239) absorbs a thermal neutron and splits into two or more medium-weight nuclei.
Basic reaction:
23592U + 10n → fission products + 2-3 10n + ~200 MeV
Important radionuclides produced by fission:
Properties of fission products:
Mo-99 production (fission method):
→ The primary method is U-235 fission (reactor). Fission products are neutron-rich → they undergo beta-minus decay. Radionuclides produced by fission have high specific activity (carrier-free). In the exam, "common property of fission products?" → Neutron-rich, beta-minus decay.
Figure 11.1: Fission yield by mass number in thermal fission of U-235; Mo-99, I-131, Xe-133, Sr-90 and Cs-137 lie at the tops of the two peaks.
11.1.2 Neutron Activation4 questions
Definition: Making a stable target nucleus radioactive by exposing it to the neutron flux in a reactor.
Basic reaction types:
1. (n,γ) Reaction – Neutron Capture:
AZX + 10n → A+1ZX + γ
2. (n,p) Reaction:
AZX + 10n → AZ−1Y + 11p
3. (n,α) Reaction:
AZX + 10n → A−3Z−2Y + 42α
Neutron activation vs fission:
| Feature | Fission | Neutron Activation (n,γ) | Neutron Activation (n,p) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Specific activity | High (carrier-free) | Low (carrier-added) | High (carrier-free) |
| Chemical separation | Possible (different element) | Not possible (same element) | Possible (different element) |
| Product character | Neutron-rich | Neutron-rich | Neutron-rich |
| Decay type | Beta-minus | Beta-minus | Beta-minus |
| Radionuclidic purity | Requires attention | Usually good | Good |
→ Target and product are the same element → chemical separation is not possible → radioactive atoms remain mixed with stable atoms.
→ Target and product are different elements → pure radionuclide is obtained by chemical separation. In the exam, "carrier-free production?" → Fission or the (n,p) reaction.
11.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Reactor Production
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
11.2 Cyclotron Production
11.2.1 Cyclotron Physics and Principle of Operation
Definition: A cyclotron is a particle accelerator that accelerates charged particles (protons, deuterons, alpha particles, He-3) along a spiral path in a magnetic field.
Principle of operation:
Accelerated particles:
Types of cyclotron:
In a negative-ion cyclotron seen from above, an H⁻ ion is accelerated by RF between two dees and spirals in the magnetic field; on the right the radius grows with energy. In the second step a carbon foil strips the electrons and the proton curves the other way to the target. The third step shows the ¹⁸O(p,n)¹⁸F reaction and the F-18 saturation curve against irradiation time.
Key point: in a cyclotron a charged particle circling in a magnetic field is accelerated by RF at each crossing and spirals outwards; in a negative-ion cyclotron a carbon foil turns H⁻ into a proton to extract the beam; the products are proton rich (β⁺, EC).
Source: book (dees, RF, perpendicular magnetic field, spiral; H⁻ and carbon foil; 10-18 MeV; ¹⁸O(p,n)¹⁸F). Calculation: r = pc/(299.79·B), B = 1.4 T illustrative (44 cm at 18 MeV); cyclotron frequency qB/(2πm) ≈ 21 MHz; Q ≈ −2.44 MeV, threshold ≈ 2.57 MeV; saturation 1 − 2^(−t/109.8 min). Number of turns and energy gain illustrative; isochronous field shaping not shown.
How to use: a single click on the drawing pauses and resumes; in the second step ↑ ↓ or the buttons below change the extraction energy, in the third step the irradiation time; ← → change steps.
Figure 11.2: Principle of operation of a negative-ion cyclotron: dees, RF acceleration, spiral path and proton extraction with a carbon foil (schematic).
11.2.2 Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides4 questions
Cyclotron reactions usually give proton-rich products → they decay by positron emission or electron capture.
Main cyclotron reactions and their products:
| Radionuclide | Reaction | Half-Life | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| F-18 | ¹⁸O(p,n)¹⁸F | 109.8 min | FDG PET, NaF PET |
| C-11 | ¹⁴N(p,α)¹¹C | 20.4 min | PET (choline, methionine, acetate) |
| N-13 | ¹⁶O(p,α)¹³N | 9.97 min | N-13 ammonia (cardiac PET) |
| O-15 | ¹⁴N(d,n)¹⁵O or ¹⁵N(p,n)¹⁵O | 2.04 min | O-15 water (cerebral/myocardial blood flow) |
| Ga-67 | ⁶⁸Zn(p,2n)⁶⁷Ga | 3.26 days | Infection/tumour scintigraphy |
| In-111 | ¹¹²Cd(p,2n)¹¹¹In | 2.80 days | Leucocyte labelling, OctreoScan |
| I-123 | ¹²⁴Xe(p,2n)¹²³Cs→¹²³Xe→ ¹²³I or ¹²⁴Te(p,2n)¹²³I | 13.2 hours | Thyroid scintigraphy, MIBG, DaTscan |
| Tl-201 | ²⁰³Tl(p,3n)²⁰¹Pb→²⁰¹Tl | 3.04 days | Myocardial perfusion (older) |
| Cu-64 | ⁶⁴Ni(p,n)⁶⁴Cu | 12.7 hours | PET imaging/therapy (theranostic) |
| Zr-89 | ⁸⁹Y(p,n)⁸⁹Zr | 3.27 days | Immuno-PET |
→ ¹⁸O(p,n)¹⁸F (proton bombardment of an O-18-enriched water target).
→ 2.04 minutes → requires an on-site cyclotron.
Figure 11.3: Directions in which reactor (neutron) and cyclotron (charged-particle) reactions shift the target nucleus on the chart of nuclides (schematic).
11.2.3 F-18 Production (Detailed)4 questions
F-18 is the most widely used PET radionuclide in nuclear medicine, and its production is of particular importance:
Target: O-18-enriched water (H₂¹⁸O) Reaction: ¹⁸O(p,n)¹⁸F Proton energy: Typically 11-18 MeV
Production process:
1. O-18-enriched water is loaded into the target chamber 2. F-18 (fluoride ion, F⁻) is formed by proton bombardment 3. The F-18 fluoride ion is separated from the target water 4. FDG synthesis: F-18 is added to the mannose triflate precursor by a nucleophilic substitution reaction 5. Hydrolysis and purification → F-18 FDG (2-[¹⁸F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose) 6. Quality control (radiochemical purity, sterility, pyrogen test, pH, osmolality)
7. Total synthesis time: ~30-60 minutes
Critical points in F-18 FDG synthesis:
→ It is a toxic substance → quality control must confirm that residual Kryptofix is below the limit.
→ Water inhibits the nucleophilic substitution reaction → lowers the yield.
Figure 11.4: Steps from F-18 production to FDG synthesis and quality control (schematic).
11.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyclotron Production
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
11.2.5 Reactor vs Cyclotron
| Feature | Reactor | Cyclotron |
|---|---|---|
| Bombarding particle | Neutron | Proton, deuteron, alpha, He-3 |
| Product character | Neutron-rich | Proton-rich |
| Decay type | Beta-minus (β⁻) | Positron (β⁺) or electron capture (EC) |
| Specific activity | Fission: high; (n,γ): low | Usually high |
| Typical products | Mo-99, I-131, Xe-133, Cr-51, P-32 | F-18, C-11, N-13, O-15, Ga-67, I-123, In-111, Tl-201 |
| Size/cost | Large, very expensive | More compact, expensive |
| Waste management | Complex | Simpler |
11.3 Generator Systems
11.3.1 Generator Principle
Definition: A radionuclide generator is a system that allows a short-lived daughter radionuclide, formed by the decay of a long-lived parent radionuclide, to be obtained repeatedly by chemical separation.
Basic requirements:
1. The half-life of the parent radionuclide must be sufficiently longer than that of the daughter 2. Parent and daughter must have different chemical properties → chemical separation must be possible
3. The daughter must have physical properties suitable for clinical use 4. The parent radionuclide must be readily available
Advantages of generators:
11.3.2 The Mo-99/Tc-99m Generator6 questions
The most important and most widely used generator system in nuclear medicine.
Decay scheme:
9942Mo →(β⁻) 99m43Tc →(IT) 9943Tc →(β⁻) 9944Ru (stable)
Physical properties:
Generator structure:
Mo-99/Tc-99m generator: Tc-99m builds up from Mo-99 in a lead-shielded alumina column; the graph shows both activities over time and the elutions.
Key point: Tc-99m in the column peaks at about 23 hours; after elution it builds up again and in transient equilibrium decreases together with Mo-99.
Source: book (T½ Mo-99 65.92 h, Tc-99m 6.01 h; branching 0.876, ENSDF); Bateman equation. Elution efficiency 85% (model assumption), compared with the Technelite leaflet (6 h 47%, 24 h 95%). The Tc-99m atom share comes from the same Bateman calculation (consistent with the table in Saha, Fundamentals of Nuclear Pharmacy: ~0.28 at 24 h).
How to use: a single click on the drawing pauses and resumes; use the time bar below to go to any hour; in the free step ↑ ↓ change the elution yield; ← → change steps.
Figure 11.5: Structure of the Mo-99/Tc-99m generator: molybdate retained on the alumina column and pertechnetate eluted with saline (schematic).
Elution dynamics:
ATc-99m / AMo-99 = T½(Mo-99) / [T½(Mo-99) − T½(Tc-99m)] = 65.92 / (65.92 − 6.01) ≈ 1.10
Elution efficiency:
WHY IT MATTERS · Carrier Tc-99
See the animation: Figure 11.6 →
→ Transient equilibrium (parent/daughter T½ ratio ~11).
→ ~23 hours (~4 × 6 hours).
→ Tc-99 builds up → specific activity falls → labelling efficiency decreases.
→ Pertechnetate (TcO₄⁻).
Mo-99/Tc-99m generator: Tc-99m builds up from Mo-99 in a lead-shielded alumina column; the graph shows both activities over time and the elutions.
Key point: Tc-99m in the column peaks at about 23 hours; after elution it builds up again and in transient equilibrium decreases together with Mo-99.
Source: book (T½ Mo-99 65.92 h, Tc-99m 6.01 h; branching 0.876, ENSDF); Bateman equation. Elution efficiency 85% (model assumption), compared with the Technelite leaflet (6 h 47%, 24 h 95%). The Tc-99m atom share comes from the same Bateman calculation (consistent with the table in Saha, Fundamentals of Nuclear Pharmacy: ~0.28 at 24 h).
How to use: a single click on the drawing pauses and resumes; use the time bar below to go to any hour; in the free step ↑ ↓ change the elution yield; ← → change steps.
Figure 11.6: Mo-99/Tc-99m transient equilibrium: maximum Tc-99m build-up at ~23 hours after elution (A) and activity changes with daily elution (B).
11.3.3 Quality Control of the Mo-99/Tc-99m Generator3 questions
Generator quality control is critically important for patient safety.
1. Mo-99 Breakthrough (Molybdenum Leakage):
2. Al₂O₃ (Aluminium) Breakthrough:
3. Radiochemical Purity:
4. Sterility and Pyrogen Testing:
→ ≤0.15 µCi Mo-99/mCi Tc-99m.
→ The eluate is placed in a lead pot → Tc-99m is shielded → the remaining activity is Mo-99.
→ ≤10 µg/mL.
→ Colorimetric test (aurintricarboxylic acid).
→ Flocculation (large particles) in Tc-99m sulphur colloid preparation → lung uptake (liver uptake with MDP).
11.3.4 The Ge-68/Ga-68 Generator4 questions
A generator system whose importance has grown rapidly in recent years with neuroendocrine tumour imaging (Ga-68 DOTATATE) and prostate cancer imaging (Ga-68 PSMA).
Decay scheme:
6832Ge →(EC) 6831Ga →(β⁺, EC) 6830Zn (stable)
Physical properties:
Generator structure and elution:
Quality control:
Clinical applications:
→ Secular equilibrium (T½ ratio ~5750).
→ Mo-99/Tc-99m transient equilibrium, Ge-68/Ga-68 secular equilibrium.
→ 0.1 M HCl (Mo-99/Tc-99m is eluted with saline).
→ ~9-12 months (Ge-68 T½ = 270 days).
11.3.5 The Sr-82/Rb-82 Generator4 questions
The generator system used in cardiac PET perfusion imaging.
Decay scheme:
8238Sr →(EC) 8237Rb →(β⁺, EC) 8236Kr (stable)
Physical properties:
Generator structure and elution:
Quality control:
Clinical use:
→ 75 seconds (the shortest-lived clinical PET radionuclide).
→ Very short T½ → preparation in a syringe is not possible → an automated infusion system is needed.
→ Long T½ (25 days) → increases bone dose.
→ ~4-8 weeks (much shorter than Ge-68/Ga-68).
11.3.6 Other Generator Systems
W-188/Re-188 Generator:
Sn-113/In-113m Generator:
Ti-44/Sc-44 Generator:
11.3.7 Comparison Table of Generator Systems1 questions
| Feature | Mo-99/Tc-99m | Ge-68/Ga-68 | Sr-82/Rb-82 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent T½ | 65.92 hours | 270.8 days | 25.36 days |
| Daughter T½ | 6.01 hours | 67.71 min | 75 seconds |
| Equilibrium type | Transient | Secular | Secular |
| Daughter decay | IT (140 keV γ) | β⁺ (89%) | β⁺ (95%) |
| Elution solution | Normal saline | 0.1 M HCl | Normal saline |
| Column material | Al₂O₃ | TiO₂ or SnO₂ | SnO₂ |
| Generator lifetime | ~1-2 weeks | ~9-12 months | ~4-8 weeks |
| Time to max. build-up | ~23 hours | ~4-5 hours | ~10 minutes |
| Parent production | Reactor (fission) | Cyclotron | Cyclotron |
| Clinical use | SPECT (very wide) | PET (NET, prostate) | PET (cardiac) |
→ Ge-68/Ga-68 (~9-12 months).
→ Rb-82 (75 s).
Figure 11.7: Rate of re-build-up of the daughter radionuclide after elution and type of equilibrium in the three generators.
11.4 Physical Properties of Radionuclides (Table)
11.4.1 SPECT Radionuclides
| Radionuclide | Half-Life | Decay Mode | Gamma Energy (keV) | Production | Main Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tc-99m | 6.01 hours | IT | 140 | Generator (Mo-99) | Very wide (MDP, MAG3, MIBI, MAA, etc.) |
| I-123 | 13.2 hours | EC | 159 | Cyclotron | Thyroid, MIBG, DaTscan |
| I-131 | 8.02 days | β⁻ | 364 (+ β⁻ 606 keV) | Reactor | Thyroid diagnosis/therapy |
| Tl-201 | 3.04 days | EC | 69-83 (Hg X-rays) | Cyclotron | Myocardial perfusion (older) |
| Ga-67 | 3.26 days | EC | 93, 185, 300, 394 | Cyclotron | Infection, lymphoma |
| In-111 | 2.80 days | EC | 171, 245 | Cyclotron | Leucocytes, OctreoScan |
| Xe-133 | 5.24 days | β⁻ | 81 | Reactor | Ventilation |
| Cr-51 | 27.7 days | EC | 320 | Reactor (n,γ) | Red cell survival, GFR |
| Co-57 | 271.8 days | EC | 122 | Cyclotron | Flood source (quality control) |
11.4.2 PET Radionuclides2 questions
| Radionuclide | Half-Life | β⁺ Emax (MeV) | β⁺ Fraction (%) | Production | Main Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F-18 | 109.8 min | 0.634 | 96.7 | Cyclotron | FDG, NaF, PSMA, FAPI |
| C-11 | 20.4 min | 0.960 | 99.8 | Cyclotron | Choline, methionine, acetate |
| N-13 | 9.97 min | 1.199 | 99.8 | Cyclotron | N-13 ammonia (cardiac) |
| O-15 | 2.04 min | 1.732 | 99.9 | Cyclotron | O-15 water (blood flow) |
| Ga-68 | 67.71 min | 1.899 | 88.9 | Generator (Ge-68) | DOTATATE, PSMA |
| Rb-82 | 75 s | 3.35 | 95.4 | Generator (Sr-82) | Cardiac perfusion |
| Cu-64 | 12.7 hours | 0.653 | 17.5 | Cyclotron | Theranostics |
| Zr-89 | 3.27 days | 0.902 | 22.7 | Cyclotron | Immuno-PET |
| I-124 | 4.18 days | 2.14 | 22.8 | Cyclotron | Thyroid dosimetry |
→ F-18.
Figure 11.8: Maximum positron energies of PET radionuclides and their relationship to spatial resolution.
11.4.3 Therapeutic Radionuclides4 questions
| Radionuclide | Half-Life | Decay Mode | Particle Energy | Production | Main Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I-131 | 8.02 days | β⁻ | β⁻ 606 keV (max) | Reactor | Thyroid therapy |
| Lu-177 | 6.65 days | β⁻ | β⁻ 498 keV (max) | Reactor | PRRT (DOTATATE), PSMA |
| Y-90 | 2.67 days | β⁻ (pure) | β⁻ 2.28 MeV (max) | Reactor/Generator | Microspheres, Zevalin |
| Ra-223 | 11.43 days | α | α 5.78 MeV | Reactor | Bone metastases |
| Sr-89 | 50.5 days | β⁻ | β⁻ 1.46 MeV (max) | Reactor | Palliation of bone pain |
| Sm-153 | 1.93 days | β⁻ | β⁻ 808 keV (max) | Reactor | Palliation of bone pain |
| Re-186 | 3.72 days | β⁻ | β⁻ 1.07 MeV (max) | Reactor | Radiosynovectomy |
| P-32 | 14.3 days | β⁻ (pure) | β⁻ 1.71 MeV (max) | Reactor | Polycythaemia vera |
| Er-169 | 9.40 days | β⁻ | β⁻ 351 keV (max) | Reactor | Radiosynovectomy (small joints) |
| Ho-166 | 26.8 hours | β⁻ | β⁻ 1.85 MeV (max) | Reactor | Microspheres (liver) |
| At-211 | 7.21 hours | α | α 5.87 MeV | Cyclotron | Research (alpha therapy) |
| Ac-225 | 10.0 days | α | α (4-alpha cascade) | Reactor/Generator | Research (PSMA, TAT) |
→ Y-90 and P-32 (no gamma emission → cannot be imaged directly, only indirectly via bremsstrahlung).
→ Ra-223 (FDA-approved, bone metastases).
→ Both beta (therapy) and low-energy gamma (113 and 208 keV → SPECT imaging) → a theranostic agent.
11.5 Target Preparation and Processing
11.5.1 Target Design
In radionuclide production, target design directly affects production yield and product quality.
Target selection criteria:
11.5.2 Post-Irradiation Processing
After irradiation, the desired radionuclide must be separated from the target material and purified.
Basic processing steps:
1. Target dissolution: Solid targets are dissolved in acid or base 2. Chemical separation: Ion-exchange chromatography, solvent extraction, distillation 3. Purification: Removal of unwanted radionuclides and chemical impurities 4. Formulation: Conversion into a chemical form suitable for radiopharmaceutical synthesis 5. Quality control: Radionuclidic purity, radiochemical purity, chemical purity, sterility
Specific examples:
Mo-99 processing (fission):
F-18 processing:
Ga-68 processing:
11.5.3 The Concept of Specific Activity3 questions
Definition: The amount of radioactivity per unit mass.
Specific Activity = Activity (Bq or Ci) / Mass (g or mol)
Theoretical maximum specific activity:
SAmax = λ × NA / M = (0.693 × 6.022 × 10²³) / (T½ × M)
Here λ = decay constant, NA = Avogadro's number, M = atomic mass, T½ = half-life
Factors affecting specific activity:
Clinical importance:
WHY IT MATTERS · Molar activity and receptor saturation
→ In receptor-based imaging, low specific activity → cold molecules block the receptors → target/background ratio falls → image quality decreases.
→ Low specific activity → not enough Mo-99 can be loaded onto the alumina column → low Tc-99m yield.
Figure 11.9: Specific activity according to carrier status, and receptor blockade by cold molecules at low specific activity (schematic).
11.5.4 Radionuclidic Purity and Contaminants3 questions
Definition:
Radionuclidic purity indicates what proportion of the total radioactivity belongs to the desired radionuclide.
Radionuclidic Purity (%) = Activity of the desired radionuclide / Total activity × 100
Sources of contaminants:
Important examples of contaminants:
Measurement methods:
Figure 11.10: Generator breakthrough tests: the lead pot method for Mo-99 (A) and the 48-hour waiting method for Ge-68 (B).
11.6 Radionuclide Selection and Principles of Radiochemistry
11.6.1 Terminology and Notation1 questions
11.6.2 Criteria for Radionuclide Selection3 questions
Diagnostic radionuclides:
Figure 11.11: Matching the physical half-life of diagnostic radionuclides to the duration of the biological process being studied (schematic).
Therapeutic radionuclides:
11.6.3 Radiolabelling Chemistry4 questions
Key Points for the Board
Radionuclide Selection and Radiochemistry – Additional Points:
Radionuclide Production Methods:
Cyclotron Production – Key Reactions:
Generator Systems – Comparison:
Quality Control of the Mo-99/Tc-99m Generator:
Quality Control of the Sr-82/Rb-82 Generator:
Quality Control of the Ge-68/Ga-68 Generator:
Pure Beta Emitters (No Gamma Emission):
Therapeutic Radionuclides – Key Distinctions:
Specific Activity:
Important Reactor-Produced Radionuclides:
Mo-99, I-131, Xe-133, Cr-51, P-32, Sr-89, Sm-153, Lu-177, Y-90, Re-186, Er-169, Ho-166
Important Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides:
F-18, C-11, N-13, O-15, Ga-67, I-123, In-111, Tl-201, Cu-64, Zr-89
Memory Aids:
Current guidelines on this chapter's topics
The latest guidelines and consensus documents on the procedures covered in this chapter (official EANM index and primary sources, November 2026). Comparison of the text with these versions is in progress; consult the guideline itself for details.
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